What System Is Responsible For Synthesizing The Nutrients In The Body Of An Animal

Chapter xv. Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System

15.2 Diet and Energy Production

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, yous will exist able to:

• Explicate why an animal'due south diet should exist balanced and meet the needs of the body
• Define the primary components of food
• Depict the essential nutrients required for cellular function that cannot exist synthesized by the brute body
• Explain how energy is produced through nutrition and digestion
• Draw how excess carbohydrates and free energy are stored in the body

Given the diversity of animate being life on our planet, it is not surprising that the animate being diet would also vary substantially. The animal nutrition is the source of materials needed for building DNA and other circuitous molecules needed for growth, maintenance, and reproduction; collectively these processes are chosen biosynthesis. The diet is likewise the source of materials for ATP production in the cells. The diet must be balanced to provide the minerals and vitamins that are required for cellular part.

Food Requirements

What are the fundamental requirements of the fauna diet? The animal diet should be well balanced and provide nutrients required for actual function and the minerals and vitamins required for maintaining structure and regulation necessary for proficient wellness and reproductive capability. These requirements for a homo are illustrated graphically in Figure 15.14

Effigy 15.14.
For humans, a balanced diet includes fruits, vegetables, grains, and protein. (credit: USDA)

Concept in Action

The showtime footstep in ensuring that yous are meeting the food requirements of your body is an awareness of the nutrient groups and the nutrients they provide. To learn more about each food group and the recommended daily amounts, explore this interactive site past the United States Section of Agronomics.

Organic Precursors

The organic molecules required for building cellular material and tissues must come from food. Carbohydrates or sugars are the principal source of organic carbons in the creature torso. During digestion, digestible carbohydrates are ultimately broken down into glucose and used to provide free energy through metabolic pathways. Complex carbohydrates, including polysaccharides, tin can be broken down into glucose through biochemical modification; however, humans do not produce the enzyme cellulase and lack the power to derive glucose from the polysaccharide cellulose. In humans, these molecules provide the fiber required for moving waste material through the large intestine and a salubrious colon. The abdominal flora in the human gut are able to extract some nutrition from these plant fibers. The excess sugars in the body are converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles for afterward use. Glycogen stores are used to fuel prolonged exertions, such as long-distance running, and to provide energy during food shortage. Excess glycogen can be converted to fats, which are stored in the lower layer of the skin of mammals for insulation and energy storage. Excess digestible carbohydrates are stored by mammals in guild to survive famine and assistance in mobility.

Another important requirement is that of nitrogen. Poly peptide catabolism provides a source of organic nitrogen. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and protein breakdown provides amino acids that are used for cellular function. The carbon and nitrogen derived from these get the building block for nucleotides, nucleic acids, proteins, cells, and tissues. Backlog nitrogen must be excreted every bit it is toxic. Fats add flavor to food and promote a sense of satiety or fullness. Fatty foods are also pregnant sources of energy considering one gram of fat contains 9 calories. Fats are required in the nutrition to aid the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and the production of fat-soluble hormones.

Essential Nutrients

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While the beast body can synthesize many of the molecules required for function from the organic precursors, there are some nutrients that need to be consumed from food. These nutrients are termed essential nutrients, significant they must be eaten, and the trunk cannot produce them.

The omega-3 alpha-linolenic acrid and the omega-half dozen linoleic acrid are essential fat acids needed to make some membrane phospholipids. Vitamins are some other class of essential organic molecules that are required in small quantities for many enzymes to part and, for this reason, are considered to be co-enzymes. Absence or depression levels of vitamins can have a dramatic effect on health, equally outlined in Tabular array 15.i and Table fifteen.2. Both fatty-soluble and water-soluble vitamins must be obtained from nutrient. Minerals, listed in Tabular array 15.3, are inorganic essential nutrients that must be obtained from food. Amid their many functions, minerals assist in structure and regulation and are considered co-factors. Certain amino acids also must be procured from food and cannot be synthesized by the body. These amino acids are the "essential" amino acids. The human body tin synthesize only 11 of the 20 required amino acids; the rest must be obtained from food. The essential amino acids are listed in Table 15.4.

Table 15 .1.Water-soluble Essential Vitamins

Vitamin	Function	Deficiencies Can Lead To	Sources
Vitamin Bi (Thiamine)	Needed by the torso to process lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates Coenzyme removes COii from organic compounds	Muscle weakness, Beriberi: reduced heart part, CNS bug	Milk, meat, dried beans, whole grains
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)	Takes an agile part in metabolism, aiding in the conversion of food to free energy (FAD and FMN)	Cracks or sores on the outer surface of the lips (cheliosis); inflammation and redness of the tongue; moist, scaly skin inflammation (seborrheic dermatitis)	Meat, eggs, enriched grains, vegetables
Vitamin Biii (Niacin)	Used past the body to release energy from carbohydrates and to process alcohol; required for the synthesis of sex hormones; component of coenzyme NAD+ and NADP+	Pellagra, which can result in dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death	Meat, eggs, grains, nuts, potatoes
Vitamin Bv (Pantothenic acid)	Assists in producing energy from foods (lipids, in detail); component of coenzyme A	Fatigue, poor coordination, retarded growth, numbness, tingling of hands and anxiety	Meat, whole grains, milk, fruits, vegetables
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)	The principal vitamin for processing amino acids and lipids; too helps convert nutrients into free energy	Irritability, depression, confusion, mouth sores or ulcers, anemia, muscular twitching	Meat, dairy products, whole grains, orange juice
Vitamin Bseven (Biotin)	Used in energy and amino acid metabolism, fat synthesis, and fatty breakdown; helps the body utilise blood sugar	Hair loss, dermatitis, depression, numbness and tingling in the extremities; neuromuscular disorders	Meat, eggs, legumes and other vegetables
Vitamin B9 (Folic acrid)	Assists the normal evolution of cells, peculiarly during fetal development; helps metabolize nucleic and amino acids	Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with nativity defects, such as neural tube defects and anemia	Leafy green vegetables, whole wheat, fruits, nuts, legumes
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)	Maintains salubrious nervous arrangement and assists with blood prison cell formation; coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism	Anemia, neurological disorders, numbness, loss of balance	Meat, eggs, fauna products
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)	Helps maintain connective tissue: bone, cartilage, and dentin; boosts the immune organisation	Scurvy, which results in bleeding, hair and tooth loss; articulation pain and swelling; delayed wound healing	Citrus fruits, broccoli, tomatoes, red sugariness bell peppers

Table 15.2. Fat-soluble Essential Vitamins

Vitamin	Function	Deficiencies Can Lead To	Sources
Vitamin A (Retinol)	Critical to the development of basic, teeth, and skin; helps maintain eyesight, enhances the immune system, fetal evolution, gene expression	Night-blindness, pare disorders, impaired immunity	Dark green leafy vegetables, yellowish-orange vegetables fruits, milk, butter
Vitamin D	Disquisitional for calcium absorption for os evolution and forcefulness; maintains a stable nervous organization; maintains a normal and strong heartbeat; helps in blood clotting	Rickets, osteomalacia, amnesty	Cod liver oil, milk, egg yolk
Vitamin East (Tocopherol)	Lessens oxidative harm of cells,and prevents lung damage from pollutants; vital to the immune system	Deficiency is rare; anemia, nervous system degeneration	Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, grains
Vitamin Chiliad (Phylloquinone)	Essential to blood clotting	Bleeding and easy bruising	Leafy green vegetables, tea

Table 15.3. Minerals and Their Function in the Homo Body

Mineral	Function	Deficiencies Can Lead To	Sources
*Calcium	Needed for muscle and neuron office; heart health; builds bone and supports synthesis and function of blood cells; nerve part	Osteoporosis, rickets, muscle spasms, impaired growth	Milk, yogurt, fish, green leafy vegetables, legumes
*Chlorine	Needed for production of hydrochloric acrid (HCl) in the tummy and nerve office; osmotic balance	Muscle cramps, mood disturbances, reduced appetite	Table salt
Copper (trace amounts)	Required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase; cofactor for hemoglobin synthesis	Copper deficiency is rare	Liver, oysters, cocoa, chocolate, sesame, nuts
Iodine	Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones	Goiter	Seafood, iodized salt, dairy products
Fe	Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin, to prevent anemia	Anemia, which causes poor concentration, fatigue, and poor allowed function	Crimson meat, leafy green vegetables, fish (tuna, salmon), eggs, dried fruits, beans, whole grains
*Magnesium	Required co-factor for ATP formation; bone germination; normal membrane functions; muscle part	Mood disturbances, musculus spasms	Whole grains, leafy light-green vegetables
Manganese (trace amounts)	A cofactor in enzyme functions; trace amounts are required	Manganese deficiency is rare	Common in most foods
Molybdenum (trace amounts)	Acts as a cofactor for three essential enzymes in humans: sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase	Molybdenum deficiency is rare
*Phosphorus	A component of basic and teeth; helps regulate acid-base balance; nucleotide synthesis	Weakness, bone abnormalities, calcium loss	Milk, hard cheese, whole grains, meats
*Potassium	Vital for muscles, eye, and nerve function	Cardiac rhythm disturbance, muscle weakness	Legumes, murphy peel, tomatoes, bananas
Selenium (trace amounts)	A cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidase; trace amounts are required	Selenium deficiency is rare	Common in most foods
*Sodium	Systemic electrolyte required for many functions; acrid-base balance; water balance; nervus function	Muscle cramps, fatigue, reduced appetite	Salt
Zinc (trace amounts)	Required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase	Anemia, poor wound healing, can lead to brusque stature	Mutual in near foods
*Greater than 200mg/day required

Table 15.iv. Essential Amino Acids

Amino acids that must be consumed	Amino acids anabolized by the trunk
isoleucine	alanine
leucine	selenocysteine
lysine	aspartate
methionine	cysteine
phenylalanine	glutamate
tryptophan	glycine
valine	proline
histidine*	serine
threonine	tyrosine
arginine*	asparagine
*The human body can synthesize histidine and arginine, simply not in the quantities required, peculiarly for growing children.

Food Free energy and ATP

Animals need nutrient to obtain energy and maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the power of a system to maintain a stable internal environment even in the face of external changes to the surround. For example, the normal body temperature of humans is 37°C (98.6°F). Humans maintain this temperature even when the external temperature is hot or cold. It takes free energy to maintain this body temperature, and animals obtain this energy from food.

The primary source of energy for animals is carbohydrates, mainly glucose. Glucose is called the body's fuel. The digestible carbohydrates in an animal's diet are converted to glucose molecules through a series of catabolic chemical reactions.

Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the primary energy currency in cells; ATP stores energy in phosphate ester bonds. ATP releases energy when the phosphodiester bonds are broken and ATP is converted to ADP and a phosphate group. ATP is produced by the oxidative reactions in the cytoplasm and mitochondrion of the cell, where carbohydrates, proteins, and fats undergo a series of metabolic reactions collectively called cellular respiration. For example, glycolysis is a series of reactions in which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid and some of its chemical potential energy is transferred to NADH and ATP.

ATP is required for all cellular functions. Information technology is used to build the organic molecules that are required for cells and tissues; it provides energy for muscle wrinkle and for the transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system. When the amount of ATP is available in excess of the body's requirements, the liver uses the excess ATP and backlog glucose to produce molecules chosen glycogen. Glycogen is a polymeric grade of glucose and is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle cells. When claret sugar drops, the liver releases glucose from stores of glycogen. Skeletal muscle converts glycogen to glucose during intense practise. The process of converting glucose and excess ATP to glycogen and the storage of excess energy is an evolutionarily of import step in helping animals deal with mobility, food shortages, and famine.

Obesity

Obesity is a major health business organization in the United States, and there is a growing focus on reducing obesity and the diseases it may lead to, such every bit type-2 diabetes, cancers of the colon and breast, and cardiovascular disease. How does the food consumed contribute to obesity?

Fat foods are calorie-dense, meaning that they have more than calories per unit mass than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of carbohydrates has 4 calories, one gram of protein has 4 calories, and one gram of fat has nine calories. Animals tend to seek lipid-rich food for their higher free energy content.

The signals of hunger ("time to swallow") and satiety ("time to stop eating") are controlled in the hypothalamus region of the brain. Foods that are rich in fatty acids tend to promote satiety more than foods that are rich only in carbohydrates.

Backlog carbohydrate and ATP are used by the liver to synthesize glycogen. The pyruvate produced during glycolysis is used to synthesize fatty acids. When there is more than glucose in the body than required, the resulting excess pyruvate is converted into molecules that eventually event in the synthesis of fatty acids within the trunk. These fatty acids are stored in adipose cells—the fat cells in the mammalian body whose primary part is to store fat for after use.

It is of import to annotation that some animals benefit from obesity. Polar bears and seals need body fatty for insulation and to proceed them from losing trunk heat during Arctic winters. When food is deficient, stored body fat provides energy for maintaining homeostasis. Fats prevent famine in mammals, allowing them to access energy when nutrient is not bachelor on a daily ground; fats are stored when a large kill is made or lots of food is available.

Summary

Animate being diet should be balanced and meet the needs of the body. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the primary components of food. Some essential nutrients are required for cellular function but cannot be produced by the beast body. These include vitamins, minerals, some fatty acids, and some amino acids. Food intake in more than necessary amounts is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells, and in fat cells. Excess adipose storage can atomic number 82 to obesity and serious wellness problems. ATP is the energy currency of the jail cell and is obtained from the metabolic pathways. Excess carbohydrates and energy are stored as glycogen in the torso.

Exercises

1. Which of the following statements is not true?
   1. Essential nutrients tin can be synthesized by the torso.
   2. Vitamins are required in small quantities for bodily role.
   3. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the torso, while others need to exist obtained from nutrition.
   4. Vitamins come in two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble.
2. Which of the following is a h2o-soluble vitamin?
   1. vitamin A
   2. vitamin E
   3. vitamin K
   4. vitamin C
3. What is the primary fuel for the body?
   1. carbohydrates
   2. lipids
   3. protein
   4. glycogen
4. Excess glucose is stored every bit ________.
   1. fat
   2. glucagon
   3. glycogen
   4. it is not stored in the trunk
5. What are essential nutrients?
6. What is the role of minerals in maintaining skillful health?
7. Discuss why obesity is a growing epidemic.
8. There are several nations where malnourishment is a common occurrence. What may be some of the wellness challenges posed by malnutrition?

Answers

1. A
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. Essential nutrients are those nutrients that must be obtained from the diet because they cannot be produced past the body. Vitamins and minerals are examples of essential nutrients.
6. Minerals—such as potassium, sodium, and calcium—are required for the performance of many cellular processes, including muscle contraction and nerve conduction. While minerals are required in trace amounts, non having minerals in the nutrition can be potentially harmful.
7. In the United States, obesity, particularly childhood obesity, is a growing concern. Some of the contributors to this situation include sedentary lifestyles and consuming more processed foods and less fruits and vegetables. As a result, even young children who are obese can face health concerns.
8. Malnutrition, oft in the form of not getting enough calories or not enough of the essential nutrients, tin can have severe consequences. Many malnourished children have vision and dental bug, and over the years may develop many serious health problems.

Glossary

bile: digestive juice produced by the liver; important for digestion of lipids

carboxypeptidase: protease that breaks downward peptides to unmarried amino acids; secreted by the brush edge of the pocket-sized intestine

chyme: mixture of partially digested food and breadbasket juices

digestion: mechanical and chemic break down of food into modest organic fragments

essential food: nutrient that cannot be synthesized by the trunk; it must exist obtained from food

large intestine: digestive system organ that reabsorbs water from undigested textile and processes waste matter matter

liver: organ that produces bile for digestion and processes vitamins and lipids

mineral: inorganic, elemental molecule that carries out of import roles in the torso

small-scale intestine: organ where digestion of protein, fats, and carbohydrates is completed

stomach: sac-like organ containing acidic digestive juices

vitamin: organic substance necessary in small amounts to sustain life

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/15-2-nutrition-and-energy-production/

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